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220 say OMB is'politically driven to provide one-sided data. Therefore, consider estimates by the Center for
Risk Analysis of the Harvard School of Public Health. The center's 1991 annual report included estimates
in 1990 dollars of the expenditures per year of life saved. The report noted that for childhood measles
225 vaccinations and for the phasing out of unleaded gasoline, the cost was negative — society «made money»
by these actions. Safety rules at underground construction sites were estimated to cost $52,000 per year of
life saved; front seat airbags in new cars, about $11,000; and dioxin effluent controls at paper mills, almost
$6 million».
230 16 There are regulations that seem to be skewed. Economists at Resources for the Future (RFF) have
addressed the cost-effectiveness of regulations, particularly the costs and benefits of the changes to the
Clean Air Act.
MORE RESEARCH NEEDED
235
17 Although this issue of risk communication with the public has been studied for decades, many
important questions need serious study. The National Research Council Committee on Risk Perception
240 and Communication spent two years examining what is known about how to communicate effectively with
the public. The committee concluded that several areas needed further research:
* — Comparability — When are risks similar enough to be compared? In trying to understand risk,
245 many people try to do a risk comparison. There needs to be research on what key factors enable a risk to be
compared and on the dimension that risks should not be compared across. Comparisons are often used to
justify actions by inappropriately comparing voluntary risks with imposed risks.
250 * — The comprehension of magnitudes — How do different ways of presenting the magnitudes affect
people's understanding of, or feel for, the size of the risks? This is an issue analysts
and the public struggle with, particularly as they try to address probabilities that are quite small, such as
one in a million.
255 * — Mental models
— How do people think about the risk decisions that confront them? The
information available on a risk is useful only if people can incorporate it into their thinking about the risk
and its management.
* — Risk literacy — How can people learn the language and concepts needed to understand risk
260 statements? Is there important preparation that could significantly improve understanding?
These are researchable questions, and work should be done on them.
265 18 Finally, if public understanding is important, the technical people who understand these issues must
work harder to communicate: they must work harder to provide clear risk analyses to the decision makers
in agencies, in industry, and in Congress. Technical people do have credibility. They also have a
270 responsibility. This responsibility can be summarized in the words of Thomas Jefferson:
I know of no safe depository of the ultimate powers of the 280 society, but the people themselves, and if
we think them not enlightened enough to exercise their control with a wholesome discretion, the remedy is
275 not to take it from them, but to inform their discretion by education.
From: Environment, 1994, Volume 35, Number 2.
EDUCATION AND POLITICAL TOLERANCE
THE 1984 GENERAL SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE
Atheist speak: There are always some people whose ideas are considered bad or dangerous by other people.
For instance, somebody who is against all churches and religion. If such a person wanted to make a speech in
your city/ town/community against churches and religion, should he be allowed to speak, or not?
Atheist teach. Should such a person be allowed to teach in a college or universiry, or not?
Atheist book. If some people in you community suggested that a book he wrote against churches and
religion should be taken out of your public library, would you favor removing this book, or not?
Communist speak. Now, I should like to ask you some questions about a man who admits he is a communist.
Suppose this admitted communist wanted to make a speech in your community. Should he be allowed to speak,
or not?