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cardinal interrogative constructions. Namely, they render the connotation of insistence in asking for
information, they express a more definite or less definite supposition of the nature of information possessed by
the listener, they present a suggestion to the listener to perform a certain action or imply a request for per-
misson to perform an action, etc.
On the other hand, in the structural framework of the interrogative sentence one can express a statement.
This type of utterance is classed as the "rhetorical question" - an expressive construction that has been
attracting the closest attention of linguistic observers since ancient times.
A high intensity of declarative functional meaning expressed by rhetorical questions is best seen in various
proverbs and maxims based on this specifically emphatic predicative unit. Cf.:
Can a leopard change his spots? Can man be free if woman be a slave? 0 shame! Where is thy blush? Why
ask the Bishop when the Pope's around? Who shall decide when the doctors disagree?
Compare rhetorical questions in stylistically freer, more common forms of speech:
That was my mission, you imagined. It was not, but where was I to go? (0. Wilde) That was all right; I
meant what I said. Why should I feel guilty about it? (J. Braine) How could I have ever thought I could get
away with it! (J. Osborne)
It should be noted that in living speech responses to rhetorical questions exactly correspond to responses
elicited by declarative sentences: they include signals of attention, appraisals, expressions of fellow feeling,
etc. Cf.:
"How can a woman be expected to be happy with a man who insists on treating her as if she were a
perfectly rational being?"- "My dear!" (O. Wilde)
A rhetorical question in principle can be followed by a direct answer, too. However, such an answer does
not fill up the rheme of the rhetorical question (which, as different from the rhemc of a genuine question, is not
at all open), but emphatically accentuates its intensely declarative semantic nature. An answer to a rhetorical
question also emphasizes its affirmative or negative implication which is opposite to the formal expression of
affirmation or negation in the outer structure of the question. Cf.:
"What more can a gentleman desire in this world?"--Nothing more, I am quite sure" (0. Wilde).
Due to these connotations, the answer to a rhetorical question can quite naturally be given by the speaker
himself:
Who, being in love, is poor? Oh, no one (0. Wilde).
The declarative nature of the rhetorical question is revealed also in the fact that it is not infrequently used as
an answer to a genuine question - namely, in cases when an expressive, emphatic answer is needed. Cf:.
"Do you expect to save the country, Mr Mangan?"-"Well, who else will?" (B. Shaw)
Rhetorical questions as constructions of intermediary communicative nature should be distinguished from
such genuine questions as are addressed by the speaker to himself in the process of deliberation and reasoning.
The genuine quality of the latter kind of questions is easily exposed by observing the character of their rhematic
elements. E.g.:
Had she had what was called a complex all this time? Or was love always sudden like this? A wild flower
seeding on a wild wind? (J. Galsworthy)
The cited string of questions belongs to the inner speech of a literary personage presented in the form of
non-personal direet speech. The rhemes of the questions are definitely open, i.e. they are typical of ordinary
questions in a dialogue produced by the speaker with an aim to obtain information from his interlocutor. This is
clearly seen from the fact that the second question presents an alternative in relation to the first question; as
regards the third question, it is not a self-dependent utterance, but a specification, cumulatively attached to the
foregoing construction.
Genuine questions to oneself as part of monologue deliberations can quite naturally be followed by
corresponding responses, forming various kinds of dialogue within monologue. Cf.:
Was she tipsy, week-minded, or merely in love? Perhaps all three! (J. Galsworthy). My God! What shall I
do? I dare not tell her who this woman really is. The shame would kill her (0. Wilde).
§ 10. The next pair of correlated communicative sentence types between which are identified predicative
constructions of intermediary nature are declarative and imperative sentences.
The expression of inducement within the framework of a declarative sentence is regularly achieved by
means of constructions with modal verbs. E.g.:
You ought to get rid of it, you know (C.P. Snow). "You can't come in," he said. "You mustn't get what I