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have ... en - for the perfect verb forms (e.g. has gone);
be ... en-for the passive verb forms (e.g. is taken).
It is easy to see that the notion of morpheme applied to the analytical form of the word violates the principle
of the identification of morpheme as an elementary meaningful segment: the analytical "framing" consists of
two meaningful segments, i.e. of two different morphemes. On the other hand, the general notion
"discontinuous constituent", "discontinuous unit" is quite rational and can be helpfully used in linguistic
description in its proper place.
CHAPTER   III                                                                       
CATEGORIAL STRUCTURE OF THE WORD
§ 1. Notional words, first of all verbs and nouns, possess some morphemic features expressing grammatical
(morphological) meanings. These features determine the grammatical form of the word.
Grammatical meanings are very abstract, very general. Therefore the grammatical form is not confined to an
individual word, but unites a whole class of words, so that each word of the class expresses the corresponding
grammatical meaning together with its individual, concrete semantics.
For instance, the meaning of the substantive plural is rendered by the regular plural suffix -(e)s, and in some
cases by other, more specific means, such as phonemic interchange and a few lexemebound suffixes. Due to the
generalized character of the plural, we say that different groups of nouns "take" this form with strictly defined
variations in the mode of expression, the variations being of more  systemic  (phonological  conditioning)  and 
less  systemic (etymological conditioning) nature. Cf.: faces, branches, matches, judges; books, rockets, boats,
chiefs, proofs; dogs, beads, films, stones, hens; lives, wives, thieves, leaves; girls, stars, toys, heroes, pianos,
cantos; oxen, children, brethren, kine; swine, sheep, deer; cod, trout, salmon, men, women, feet, teeth, geese,
mice, lice; formulae, antennae; data, errata, strata, addenda, memoranda; radii, genii, nuclei, alumni; crises,
bases, analyses, axes; phenomena, criteria.
As we see, the grammatical form presents a division of the word on the principle of expressing a certain
grammatical meaning.
§ 2. The most general notions reflecting the most general properties of phenomena are referred to in logic as
"categorial notions", or "categories". The most general meanings rendered by language and expressed by
systemic correlations of word-forms are interpreted in linguistics as categorial grammatical meanings. The
forms themselves are identified within definite paradigmatic series.
The categorial meaning (e.g. the grammatical number) unites the individual meanings of the correlated
paradigmatic forms (e.g. singular - plural) and is exposed through them; hence, the meaning of the grammatical
category and the meaning of the grammatical form are related to each other on the principle of the logical
relation between the categorial and generic notions.
As for the grammatical category itself, it presents the same as the grammatical "form", a unity of form (i.e.
material factor) and meaning (i.e. ideal factor) and constitutes a certain signemic system.
More specifically, the grammatical category is a system of expressing a generalized grammatical meaning
by means of paradigmatic correlation of grammatical forms.
The ordered set of grammatical forms expressing a categorial function constitutes a paradigm.
The paradigmatic correlations of grammatical forms in a category are exposed by the so-called
"grammatical oppositions".
The opposition (in the linguistic sense) may be defined as a generalized correlation of lingual forms by
means of which a certain function is expressed. The correlated elements (members) of the opposition must
possess two types of features: common features and differential features. Common features serve as the basis
of contrast, while differential features immediately express the function in question.
The oppositional theory was originally formulated as a phonological theory. Three main qualitative types of
oppositions were established in phonology: "privative", "gradual", and "equipollent". By the number of
members contrasted, oppositions were divided into binary (two members) and more than binary (ternary,
quaternary, etc.).
The most important type of opposition is the binary privative opposition; the other types of oppositions are
reducible to the binary privative opposition.
The binary privative opposition is formed by a contrastive pair of members in which one member is
characterized by the presence of a certain differential feature ("mark"), while the other member is characterized
by the absence of this feature. The member in which the feature is present is called the "marked", or "strong",
or "positive" member, and is commonly designated by the symbol + (plus); the member in which the feature is
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