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lady.
* See: Грамматика русского языка. М., 1960. Т. 2. Синтаксис, ч. I, с. 353; 365 и cл.
   Similarly, exclamatory questions are immediately related in the syntactic system to the corresponding non-
exclamatory interrogative sentences. E.g.:
Whatever do you mean, Mr. Critchlow? (A. Bennett) <What do you mean? Then why in God's name did
you come? (K. Mansfield) <Why did you come?
Imperative sentences, naturally, are characterized by a higher general degree of emotive intensity than the
other two cardinal communicative sentence-types. Still, they form analogous pairs, whose constituent units are
distinguished from each other by no other feature than the presence or absence of exclamation as such. E.g.:
      Francis, will you please try to speak sensibly! (E. Hemingway) <Try to speak sensibly. Don't you dare to
compare me to common people! (B. Shaw) <Don't compare me to common people. Never so long as you live
say I made you do that! (J. Erskine) <Don't say I made you do that.
As is seen from the given examples, all the three pairs of variant communicative types of sentences (non-
exclamatory-exclamatory for each cardinal division) make up distinct semantico-syntactic oppositions effected
by regular grammatical means of language, such as intonation, word-order and special constructions with
functional-auxiliary lexemic elements. It follows from this that the functional-communicative classification of
sentences specially distinguishing emotive factor should discriminate, at the lower level of analysis, between
the six sentence-types forming, respectively, three groups (pairs) of cardinal communicative quality.
§ 5. The communicative properties of sentences can further be exposed in the light of the theory of actual
division of the sentence.
The actual division provides for the informative content of the utterance to be expressed with the due
gradation of its parts according to the significance ot their respective role in the context. But any utterance is
formed within the framework of the system of communicative types of sentences. And as soon as we compare
the communication-purpose aspect of the utterance with its actual division aspect we shall find that each
communicative sentence-type is distinguished by its specific actual division features, which are revealed first
and foremost in the nature of the rheme as the meaningful nucleus of the utterance.
The strictly declarative sentence immediately expresses a certain proposition. By virtue of this, the actual
division of the declarative sentence presents itself in the most developed and complete form. The rheme of the
declarative sentence makes up the centre of some statement as such. This can be distinctly demonstrated by a
question-test directly revealing the rhematic part of an utterance. Cf.:
The next instant she had recognized him. > What ,had she done the next instant?
The pronominal what-question clearly exposes in the example the part "(had) recognized him" as the
declarative rheme, for this part is placed within the interrogative-pronominal reference. In other words, the
tested utterance with its completed actual division is the only answer to the cited potential question; the
utterance has been produced by the speaker just to express the fact of "his being recognized".
Another transformational test for the declarative rheme is the logical superposition. The logical
superposition consists in transforming the tested construction into the one where the rheme is placed in the
position of the logically emphasized predicate. By way of example let us take the second sentence in the
following sequence:
     And I was very uneasy. All sorts of forebodings assailed me. 
    The logical superposition of the utterance is effected thus: >What assailed me was all sorts of forebodings.
This test marks out the subject of the utterance "all sorts of forebodings" as the rheme, because it is just this
pan of the utterance that is placed in the emphatic position of the predicate in the supcrpositional transform.
Similar diagnostic procedures expose the layer-structure of the actual division in composite syntactic
constructions. For instance, in the following complex sentence rhematic question-tests easily reveal the three
declarative rhemes on the three consecutive syntactic layers:
       I knew that Mr. Wade had been very excited by something that he had found out.
  Test for the first syntactic layer: What did I know?
Test for the second syntactic layer: What state was Mr. Wade in?
Test for the third syntactic layer: What made him excited? (By what was he excited?)
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